telephone:+7 (8352) 222-490
Mail:info@interactive-plus.ru
rus eng


  1. Main
  2. Journal "Interactive science"
  3. No 4 (14)
  4. Synthetic cannabinoid: prevalence, mechanisms of a...
Центр научного сотрудничества "Интерактив плюс"
info@interactive-plus.ru
+7 (8352) 222-490
2130122532
Центр научного сотрудничества «Интерактив плюс»
RU
428000
Чувашская Республика
г.Чебоксары
ул.Гражданская, д.75
428000, Россия, Чувашская Республика, г. Чебоксары, улица Гражданская, дом 75
+7 (8352) 222-490
RU
428000
Чувашская Республика
г.Чебоксары
ул.Гражданская, д.75
56.125001
47.208966

Synthetic cannabinoid: prevalence, mechanisms of addiction development, mental disorders associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid

Research Article
DOI: 10.21661/r-117272
Open Access
Monthly international scientific journal «Interactive science»
Creative commons logo
Published in:
Monthly international scientific journal «Interactive science»
Authors:
Antsyborov A.V. 1 , Mrykhin V.V. 2
Work direction:
Медицина
Rating:
Article accesses:
4765
Published in:
doaj
eLibrary.ru
1 Mental Health Clinic «Psyche»
2 FSFEI of HE “Rostov State Medical University” of Russian Ministry of Health
For citation:
Antsyborov A. V., & Mrykhin V. V. (2017). Synthetic cannabinoid: prevalence, mechanisms of addiction development, mental disorders associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid. Interactive science, 39-51. https://doi.org/10.21661/r-117272
  • Metadata
  • Full text
  • Metrics
  • Related articles
UDC 61

Abstract

According to the authors among the new psychoactive substances, the number of which is growing every year, despite the measures aimed at the obstacles to their dissemination there discovered the most frequent violations of psychotic conditions associated with use of synthetic cannabinoid in clinical practice. On the black market, they are distributed through online shops, under the guise of herbal mixtures for Smoking. When ingested, this group of drugs at the peak of intoxication raises a number of mental (different according to the depth of impaired consciousness, auditory and visual hallucinations, panic attacks, acute psychotic paranoid disorders, catatonic stupor, polar affective disorders, acute polythematic delusional symptoms) and somatic disorders (disorders of heart rhythm and conduction, acute ischemic disorders, hypertension, depression of respiratory activity, violation of thermoregulation, development of acute renal failure, vomiting, expressed cephalgia, clinic of hypokalemia). In the reviewed literature and authors own observations there have been discovered some cases of mental addiction development to synthetic cannabinoids. The analysis of new literature data and own clinical observations helped the authors to compare the psychotropic effects caused by this group of drugs, relative to other known surfactants. The toxic effects of CSC on the body greatly exceeds the use of plant cannabinoids, and it has almost the same effects as the synthetic cathinone’s. The speed of formation of psychological dependence is lower compared to synthetic cathinone. Developing current strategies for diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients who use synthetic cannabinoids remains an important task for practical healthcare.

References

  1. 1. UNDOC. World Drug Report 2013-new psychoactive substances (NPS) [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.unodc.org/wdr/en/nps.html (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  2. 2. UNDOC. World Drug Report 2014-amphetamine-type substances (ATS) and new psychoactive substances (NPS) [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2014/ATS_NPS_2014_web.pdf (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  3. 3. Schneir A.B., Cullen J., Ly B.T. «Spice» girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. J Emerg Med 2011; 40: 296–299.
  4. 4. Harris C.R., Brown A. Synthetic cannabinoid intoxication: a case series and review. J Emerg Med 2013; 44: 360–366.
  5. 5. Helander A. Bäckberg M. Hultén P. Et al. Detection of new psychoactive substance use among emergency room patients: Results from the Swedish STRIDA project. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 243: 23–29.
  6. 6. Seely K.A., Patton A.L., Moran C.L. et al. Forensic investigation of K2, Spice, and «bath salt» commercial preparations: a three-year study of new designer drug products containing synthetic cannabinoid, stimulant, and hallucinogenic compounds. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 233: 416–422.
  7. 7. Auwärter V., Dresen S., Weinmann W. et al. «Spice» and other herbal blends: harmless incense or cannabinoid designer drugs? J Mass Spectrom 2009; 44: 832–837.
  8. 8. Atwood B.K., Huffman J., Straiker A. et al. JWH018, a common constituent of «Spice» herbal blends, is a potent and efficacious cannabinoid CB receptor agonist. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160: 585–593.
  9. 9. Spaderna M., Addy P.H., D’Souza D.C. Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 228: 525–540.
  10. 10. Huffman J.W., Zengin G., Wu M.J. et al. Structure-activity relationships for 1-alkyl-3-(1-naphthoyl) indoles at the cannabinoid CB (1) and CB (2) receptors: steric and electronic effects of napthoyl substituents. New highly selective CB (2) receptor agonists. Bioorg Med Chem 2005; 13: 89–112.
  11. 11. Europäische Beobachtungsstelle für Drogen und Drogensucht: Drogenangebot in Europa (EMCDDA). Perspectives on drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids in Europe, update 16.5. 2014 [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_212361_EN_EMCDDA_POD_2013_Synthetic%20cannabinoids.pdf (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  12. 12. Uchiyama N. Matsuda, S. Kawamura M et al. The new-type cannabimimetic quinolinyl carboxylates, QUPIC and QUCHIC, two new cannabimimetic carboxamide derivates, ADP-FUBINACA and ADBICA, and five cannabinoids detected with thiophene derivateα-PVT and an opioid agonist AH-7921 identified in illegal products. Forensic Toxicol 2013; 31: 223–230.
  13. 13. Europäische Beobachtungsstelle für Drogen und Drogensucht: Drogenangebot in Europa (EMCDDA). In: Europäischer Drogenbericht 2013: Trends und Entwicklungen. Luxemburg: Amt für Veröffentlichungen der Europäischen Union; 2013: 28–29.
  14. 14. Europäische Beobachtungsstelle für Drogen und Drogensucht: Drogenangebot in Europa (EMCDDA). Europäischer Drogenbericht 2014: Trends und Entwicklungen [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_228272_DE_TDAT14001DEN.pdf (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  15. 15. Gunderson E.W., Haughey H.M. Ait-Daoud N. et al. A survey of synthetic cannabinoid consumption by current cannabis users. Subst Abus 2014; 35: 184–189.
  16. 16. Pabst A., Kraus L., Gomes de Matos E. et al. Substanzkonsum und substanzbezogene Störungen in Deutschland im Jahr 2012. Sucht 2013; 59: 321–331.
  17. 17. Reid M.J., Baz-Lomba J.A., Ryu Y. et al. Using biomarkers in wastewater to monitor community drug use: a conceptual approach for dealing with new psychoactive substances. Sci Total Environ 2014; 487: 651–658.
  18. 18. Brents L.K., Prather P.L. The K2/Spice phenomenon: emergence, identification, legislation and metabolic characterization of synthetic cannabinoids in herbal incense products. Drug Metab Rev 2014; 46: 72–85.
  19. 19. Fadda P., Scherma M., Spano M.S. et al. Cannabinoid self-administration increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Neuroreport 2006; 17: 1629–1632.
  20. 20. Maldonado R., Berrendero F., Ozaita A. Et al. Neurochemical basis of cannabis addiction. Neuroscience 2011; 181: 1–17.
  21. 21. Flores Á., Maldonado R., Berrendero F. The hypocretin/orexin receptor-1 as a novel target to modulate cannabinoid reward. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75: 499–507.
  22. 22. Fantegrossi W.E., Moran J.H., Radominska-Pandya A. et al. Distinct pharmacology and metabolism of K2 synthetic cannabinoids compared to Δ(9)-THC: mechanism underlying greater toxicity? Life Sci 2014; 97: 45–54.
  23. 23. Järbe T.U., Gifford R.S., «Herbal incense»: designer drug blends as cannabimimetics and their assessment by drug discrimination and other in vivo bioassays. Life Sci 2014; 97: 64–71.
  24. 24. Franklin J.M., Mathew M., Carrasco G.A. Cannabinoid-induced upregulation of serotonin 2A receptors in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and anxiety-like behaviors in rats. Neurosci Lett 2013; 548: 165–169.
  25. 25. EMCDDA. Molekülstrukturen [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/topics/pods/synthetic-cannabinoids#panel2
  26. 26. Bundesministeriums der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. Gesetz über den Verkehr mit Betäubungsmitteln (Betäubungsmittelgesetz-BtMG). Letzte Änderung am 5.12.2014 [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/btmg_1981/gesamt.pdf (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  27. 27. Tomiyama K., Funada M. Cytotoxicity of synthetic cannabinoids on primary neuronal cells of the forebrain: the involvement of cannabinoid CB1 receptors and apoptotic cell death. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 274: 17–23.
  28. 28. Koller V.J., Auwärter V., Grummt T. et al. Investigation of the in vitro toxicological properties of the synthetic cannabimimetic drug CP-47,497-C8. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 277: 164–171.
  29. 29. Dhopeshwarkar A., Mackie K. CB2 cannabinoid receptors as a therapeutic target-What does the future hold? Mol Pharmacol 2014; 86: 430–437.
  30. 30. Shanks K.G., Behonick G.S., Dahn T. et al. Identification of novel third-generation synthetic cannabinoids in products by ultra-performance liquid chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 37: 517–525.
  31. 31. Castaneto M.S., Gorelick D.A., Desrosiers N.A. et al. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 144: 12–41.
  32. 32. Martin B.R., Compton D.R., Thomas B.F. et al. Behavioral, biochemical, and molecular modeling evaluations of cannabinoid analogs. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1991; 40: 471–478.
  33. 33. Cha H.J., Lee K.W., Song M.J. et al. Dependence Potential of the Synthetic Cannabinoids JWH-073, JWH-081, and JWH-210: In Vivo and In Vitro Approaches. Biomol Ther. (Seoul) 2014; 22: 363–369.
  34. 34. Ginsburg B.C., Schulze D.R., Hruba L. et al. JWH-018 and JWH-073: Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-like discriminative stimulus effects in monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2012; 340: 37–45.
  35. 35. Hruba L., Ginsburg BC., McMahon LR. Apparent inverse relationship between cannabinoid agonist efficacy and tolerance/cross-tolerance produced byΔ9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment in rhesus monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2012; 342: 843–849.
  36. 36. Hyatt W.S., Fantegrossi W.E. Δ9-THC exposure attenuates aversive effects and reveals appetitive effects of K2/'Spice' constituent JWH-018 in mice. Behav Pharmacol 2014; 25: 253–257.
  37. 37. Gronewold A., Skopp G. A preliminary investigation on the distribution of cannabinoids in man. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 210: e7-e11.
  38. 38. Chimalakonda K.C., Seely K.A., Bratton S.M. et al. Cytochrome P450-mediated oxidative metabolism of abused synthetic cannabinoids found in K2/Spice: identification of novel cannabinoid receptor ligands. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 40: 2174–2184.
  39. 39. Chimalakonda K.C., Bratton S.M., Le V.H. et al. Conjugation of synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 and JWH-073, metabolites by human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39: 1967–1976.
  40. 40. De Brabanter N., Esposito S., Tudela E et al. I n vivo and in vitro metabolism of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH-200. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2013; 27: 2115–2126.
  41. 41. Teske J., Weller J.P., Fieguth A. et al. Sensitive and rapid quantification of the cannabinoid receptor agonist naphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl) methanone (JWH-018) in human serum by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878: 2659–2663.
  42. 42. Gandhi A.S., Zhu M., Pang S. et al. First characterization of AKB-48 metabolism, a novel synthetic cannabinoid, using human hepatocytes and high-resolution mass spectrometry. AAPS J 2013; 15: 1091–1098.
  43. 43. Krasowski M.D., Ekins S. Using cheminformatics to predict cross reactivity of «designer drugs» to their currently available immunoassays. J Cheminform 2014; 6: 22.
  44. 44. Arntson A., Ofsa B., Lancaster D. et al. Validation of a novel immunoassay for the detection of synthetic cannabinoids and metabolites in urine specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 37: 284–290.
  45. 45. Castaneto M.S., Desrosiers N.A., Ellefsen K. et al. Method validation of the biochip array technology for synthetic cannabinoids detection in urine. Bioanalysis 2014; 21: 2919–2930.
  46. 46. Smith D.L., Roberts C. Synthetic marijuana use and development of catatonia in a 17-year-old male. Minn Med 2014; 97: 38.
  47. 47. Buser G.L., Gerona R.R., Horowitz B.Z. et al. Acute kidney injury associated with smoking synthetic cannabinoid. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 52: 664–673.
  48. 48. Mir A., Obafemi A., Young A. Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. Pediatrics 2011; 128: e1622-e1627.
  49. 49. Gunderson E.W., Haughey H.M., Ait-Daoud N. et al. «Spice» and «K2»herbal highs: a case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans. Am J Addict 2012; 21: 320–326.
  50. 50. Every-Palmer S. Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and psychosis: an explorative study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; 117: 152–157.
  51. 51. Hermanns-Clausen M., Kneisel S., Szabo B. et al. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 2013; 108: 534–544.
  52. 52. Hopkins C.Y., Gilchrist B.L. A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome caused by synthetic cannabinoids. J Emerg Med 2013; 45: 544–546.
  53. 53. Nacca N., Vatti D, Sullivan R. et al. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. J Addict Med 2013; 7: 296–298.
  54. 54. Zimmermann U.S., Winkelmann P.R., Pilhatsch M. et al. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of «spice gold». Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009; 106: 464–467.
  55. 55. Rominger A., Cumming P., Xiong G. et al. Effects of acute detoxification of the herbal blend «Spice Gold» on dopamine D2/3 receptor availability: a [18F] fallypride PET study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 23: 1606–1610.
  56. 56. Behonick G., Shanks K.G., Firchau D.J. et al. Four Postmortem Case Reports with Quantitative Detection of the Synthetic Cannabinoid, 5F-PB-22. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 38: 559–562.
  57. 57. Schaefer N., Peters B., Bregel D. et al. A fatal case involving several synthetic cannabinoids. Toxichem Krimtech 2013; 80 (Special Issue): 248–251.
  58. 58. Ibrahim S., Al-Saffar F., Wannenburg T., A Unique Case of Cardiac Arrest following «K2» Abuse. Case Rep Cardiol 2014; 2014: 120607.
  59. 59. Patton A., Chimalakonda K.C., Moran C.L. et al. K2 toxicity: fatal case of psychiatric complications following AM2201 exposure. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58: 1676–1680.
  60. 60. Saito T., Namara A., Miura N. et al. A fatal case of MAM-2201 poisoning. Forensic Toxicol 2013; 31: 333–337.
  61. 61. Kronstrand R., Roman M., Andersson M. et al. Toxicological findings of synthetic cannabinoids in recreational users. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 37: 534–541.
  62. 62. Wikström M., Thelander G., Dahlgren M. et al. An accidental fatal intoxication with methoxetamine. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 37: 43–46.
  63. 63. Ware M.A., St Arnaud-Trempe E. The abuse potential of the synthetic canabinonid nabilone. Addiction 2010; 105: 494–503.
  64. 64. Winstock A.R., Barratt M.J. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 131: 106–111.
  65. 65. Winstock A.R., Barratt M.J. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28: 390–393.
  66. 66. Musshoff F., Madea B., Kernbach-Wighton G. et al. Driving under the influence of synthetic cannabinoids («Spice»): a case series. Int J Legal Med 2014; 128: 59–64.
  67. 67. Bonar E.E., Ashrafioun L., Ilgen M.A. Synthetic cannabinoid use among patients in residential substance use disorder treatment: prevalence, motives, and correlates. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 143: 268–271.
  68. 68. Papanti D., Schifano F., Botteon G. et al. Spiceophrenia»: a systematic overview of «spice»-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28: 379–389.
  69. 69. Hodcroft C.J., Rossiter M.C., Buch A.N. Cannabis-associated Myocardial Infarction in a Young Man with Normal Coronary Arteries. J Emerg Med 2014; 47: 277–281.
  70. 70. Bernson-Leung M.E., Leung L.Y., Kumar S. Synthetic cannabis and acute ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2014; 23: 1239–1241.
  71. 71. Hohmann N., Mikus G., Czock D., Wirkungen und Risiken neuartiger psychoaktiver Substanzen. Dtsch Arztebl 2014; 111: 139–147.
  72. 72. Derungs A., Schwaninger A.E., Mansella G. et al. Symptoms, toxicities, and analytical results for a patient after smoking herbs containing the novel synthetic cannabinoid MAM-2201. Forensic Toxicol 2013; 31: 164–171.
  73. 73. McQuade D., Hudson S., Dargan P.I. et al. First European case of convulsions related to analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist AM-2201. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 69: 373–376.
  74. 74. Monte A.A., Bronstein A.C., Cao D.J. et al. An outbreak of exposure to a novel synthetic cannabinoid. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 389–390.
  75. 75. Tofighi B., Lee JD. Internet highs-seizures after consumption of synthetic cannabinoids purchased online. J Addict Med 2012; 6: 240–241.
  76. 76. Lapoint J., James L.P., Moran C.L. et al. Severe toxicity following synthetic cannabinoid ingestion. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2011; 49: 760–764.
  77. 77. Seely K.A., Lapoint J., Moran J.H. et al. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: a review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39: 234–243.
  78. 78. APA (American Psychiatric Association). Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5TM). Cannabis Withdrawal (292.0/F12.88). Washington, DC: APA; 2013: 517–519.
  79. 79. Alhadi S., Tiwari A., Vohra R. et al. High times, low sat: diffuse pulmonary infiltrates associated with chronic synthetic cannabinoid use. J Med Toxicol 2013; 9: 199–206.
  80. 80. Swift W., Wong A., Li K.M. et al. Analysis of cannabis seizures in NSW, Australia: cannabis potency and cannabinoid profile. PLoS One 2013; 8: e70052.
  81. 81. Nutt D.J., King L.A., Phillips L.D. Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet 2010; 376: 1558–1565.
  82. 82. Van Amsterdam J., Opperhuizen A., Koeter M. et al. Ranking the harm of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs for the individual and the population. Eur Addict Res 2010; 16: 202–207.
  83. 83. Griffiths R.R., Johnson M.W. Relative abuse liability of hypnotic drugs: a conceptual framework and algorithm for differentiating among compounds. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 (Suppl 9): 31–41.
  84. 84. Halpin L.E., Collins S.A., Yamamoto B.K. Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Life Sci 2014; 97: 37–44.
  85. 85. Miotto K., Striebel J., Cho A.K. et al. Clinical and pharmacological aspects of bath salt use: a review of the literature and case reports. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 132: 1–12.
  86. 86. Musselman M.E., Hampton J.P. «Not for human consumption»: a review of emerging designer drugs. Pharmacotherapy 2014; 34: 745–757.
  87. 87. German C.L., Fleckenstein A.E., Hanson G.R. Bath salts and synthetic cathinones: an emerging designer drug phenomenon. Life Sci 2014; 97: 2–8.
  88. 88. Paillet-Loilier M., Cesbron A., Le Boisselier R. et al. Emerging drugs of abuse: current perspectives on substituted cathinones. Subst Abuse Rehabil 2014; 5: 37–52.
  89. 89. Hawley L.A., Auten J.D., Matteucci M.J. et al. Cardiac complications of adult methamphetamine exposures. J Emerg Med 2013; 45: 821–827.
  90. 90. Panenka W.J., Procyshyn R.M., Lecomte T. et al. Methamphetamine use: a comprehensive review of molecular, preclinical and clinical findings. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 129: 167–179.
  91. 91. Carvalho M., Carmo H., Costa V.M. et al. Toxicity of amphetamines: an update. Arch Toxicol 2012; 86: 1167–1231.
  92. 92. Cottencin O., Rolland B., Karila L., New designer drugs (synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones): review of literature. Curr Pharm Des 2014; 20: 4106–4111.
  93. 93. McNabb C.B., Russell B.R., Caprioli D., et al. Single chemical entity legal highs: assessing the risk for long term harm. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2012; 5: 304–319.
  94. 94. Liechti M. Novel psychoactive substances (designer drugs): overview and pharmacology of modulators of monoamine signaling. Swiss Med Wkly 2015; 145: w14043.
  95. 95. Bonnet U. Einschätzung des Abhängigkeitsrisikos von Propofol. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2011; 79: 442–452.
  96. 96. Brennan R., Van Hout M.C. Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB): A Scoping Review of Pharmacology, Toxicology, Motives for Use, and User Groups. J Psychoactive Drugs 2014; 46: 243–251.
  97. 97. Brunt T.M., van Amsterdam J.G., van den Brink W. GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD addiction. Curr Pharm Des 2014; 20: 4076–4085.
  98. 98. Corazza O., Assi S., Schifano F. From «Special K» to «Special M»: the evolution of the recreational use of ketamine and methoxetamine. CNS Neurosci Ther 2013; 19: 454–460.
  99. 99. Kalsi SS., Wood DM., Dargan PI. The epidemiology and patterns of acute and chronic toxicity associated with recreational ketamine use. Emerg Health Threats J 2011; 4: 7107.
  100. 100. Bonnet U., Scherbaum N. Cannabisbezogene Störungen. Teil I: Pharmakologie, Epidemiologie und Therapieverfahren. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat 2010; 78: 297–305.
  101. 101. Bonnet U., Scherbaum N. Cannabisbezogene Störungen. Teil II: Psychiatrische und somatische Folgestörungen und Komorbiditäten. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat 2010; 78: 360–370.
  102. 102. Brown S.D., Melton T.C. Trends in bioanalytical methods for the determination and quantification of club drugs: 2000–2010. Biomed Chromatogr 2011; 25: 300–321.
  103. 103. Ernst L., Krüger K., Lindigkeit R. et al. Synthetic cannabinoids in «spice-like» herbal blends: first appearance of JWH-307 and recurrence of JWH-018 on the German market. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 222: 216–222.
  104. 104. Info Curia. Rechtsprechung des Gerichtshofs [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf;jssionid=9ea7d2dc30d6686695f92d2b4b5d94a6c225f2d2b8f0.e34KaiLc3qMb40Rch0SaxuOa310?text=&docid=154827&pageIndex=0&doclang=de&mode=req&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=214760 (retrieved: 08.02.2015).
  105. 105. Bonnet U., Specka M., Stratmann U Et al. Abstinence phenomena of chronic cannabis-addicts prospectively monitored during controlled inpatient detoxification: Cannabis withdrawal syndrome and its correlation with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and -metabolites in serum. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 143: 189–197.
  106. 106. Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, Office of Diversion Control, Drug Enforcement Administration, Washington, DC 20537, December 2014 [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/3-factor%20analisis%20AB-CHMINACA%20AB-PINACA%20THJ2201%2012172014.pdf (retrieved: 14.03.2015).
  107. 107. Werse B., Morgenstern C. Der Trend geht zur Reinsubstanz-Entwicklungen im Konsum von»Legal highs»/neuen psychoaktiven Substanzen (NPS) auf Basis zweier Online-Befragungen. Suchttherapie 2015; 16: 36–41.
  108. 108. Зобнин Ю.В. Острые отравления синтетическими каннабиноидами («Спайсам») / Ю.В. Зобнин, Е.М. Стадлер // Сибирский медицинский журнал. – 2014. – №8. – С. 130–135.
  109. 109. Макиев К.Т. Современные угрозы национальной безопасности России (курительные смеси, содержащие аналоги каннабиноидов) и пути их преодоления / К.Т. Макиев, В.В. Гладырев, Г.В. Любецкий, Д.В. Кайргалиев, Д.В. Васильев // Современные проблемы науки и образования. – 2015. – №2–1.
  110. 110. Papanti G.D., Orsolini L., Francesconi G. et al. «Noids’; what you (don’t) want to know about synthetic cannabinoids. Adv Dual Diagn 2014; 7:137–48.
  111. 111. Fisar Z. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase activity by cannabinoids. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2010; 381:563–72.
  112. 112. Morgan D., Kondabolu K., Kuipers A. et al. Molecular and behavioral pharmacology of two novel orally-active 5HT2 modulators: potential utility as antipsychotic medications. Neuropharmacology 2013; 72:274–81.
  113. 113. Halberstadt A.L. Recent advances in the neuropsychopharmacology of serotonergic hallucinogens. Behav Brain Res (in press).
  114. 114. Wells D.L., Ott C.A. The new marijuana. Ann Pharmacother 2011; 45:414–7.
  115. 115. Yip L., Dart C.R. Is there something more about synthetic cannabinoids? Forensic Toxicol 2014; 32:340–1.
  116. 116. Boyer E.W., Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1112–20.
  117. 117. Ismail F. Important fluorinated drugs in experimental and clinical use. J Fluor Chem 2002; 118:27–33.
  118. 118. Wilkinson S.M., Banister S.D., Kassiou M. et al. Bioisosteric fluorine in the clandestine design of synthetic cannabinoids. Aust J Chem (in press).
  119. 119. Hermanns-Clausen M., Kneisel S., Szabo B. et al. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 2013; 108:534–44.
  120. 120. Spaderna M., Addy P.H., D’Souza D.C. Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology 2013; 228:525–40.
  121. 121. Winstock A.R., Barratt M.J. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:390–3.
  122. 122. Freeman M.J., Rose D.Z., Myers M.A. et al. Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana «spice’. Neurology 2013; 81:2090–3.
  123. 123. Freeman W.D., Jacksonville F.L., Louh I.K. «Spice encephalopathy». Response to «Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana «spice’». Neurology 2014; 81:2090–3.
  124. 124. Mir A., Obafemi A., Young A. et al. Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. Pediatrics 2011; 128: e1622–7.
  125. 125. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use – multiple states, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 62:93–8.
  126. 126. Saito T., Namera A., Miura N. et al. A fatal case of MAM-2201 poisoning. Forensic Toxicol 2013; 31:333–7.
  127. 127. Shanks K.G., Dahn T., Terrell A.R. Detection of JWH-018 and JWH-073 by UPLC-MS-MS in postmortem whole blood case- work. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:145–52.
  128. 128. Schaefer N., Peters B., Bregel D. et al. A fatal case involving sever – al synthetic cannabinoids. Toxichem Krimtech 2013; 80:248–51.
  129. 129. Savasman C.M., Peterson D.C., Pietak B.R. et al. Two fatalities due to the use of synthetic cannabinoids alone. Presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Seattle. Denver: Publication Printers Inc., 2014:316.
  130. 130. Patton A.L., Chimalakonda K.C., Cindy L. et al. K2 toxicity: fatal case of psychiatric complications following AM2201 exposure. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58:1676–80.
  131. 131. Behonick G., Shanks K.G., Firchau D.J. et al. Four postmortem case reports with quantitative detection of the synthetic cannabinoid, 5F-PB-22. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 38:559–62.
  132. 132. Gunderson E.W., Haughey H.M., Ait-Daoud N. et al. «Spice’ and «K2’ herbal highs: a case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans. Am J Addiction 2012; 21:320–6.
  133. 133. Nacca N., Vatti D., Sullivan R. et al. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. J Addict Med 2013; 7:296–8.
  134. 134. New Zealand Ministry of Health. Revoked interim product approvals [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: www.health.govt.nz
  135. 135. Rominger A., Cumming P., Xiong G. et al. Effects of acute detoxification of the herbal blend «Spice Gold’ on dopamine D2/3 receptor availability: a [18F] fallypride PET study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 23:1606–10.
  136. 136. Zimmermann U.S., Winkelmann P.R., Pilhatsch M. et al. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of «spice gold’. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009; 106:464–7. 137.
  137. 137. Di Forti M., Sallis H., Allegri F. et al. Daily use, especially of high potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophr Bull (in press).
  138. 138. Papanti D., Schifano F., Botteon G. et al. «Spiceophrenia’: a systematic overview of «Spice’-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:379–89.
  139. 139. Celofiga A., Koprivsek J., Klavz J. Use of synthetic cannabinoids in patients with psychotic disorders: case series. J Dual Diagn 2014; 10:168–73.
  140. 140. Oluwabusi O.O., Lobach L., Akhtar U. et al. Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis: two adolescent cases. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2012; 22:393–5.
  141. 141. Смерть от спайсов – статистика смертности 2016 [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://netnarkotiki.ru/blog/smert-ot-spajsov.html (дата обращения: 01.12.2016).
  142. 142. Синтетические каннабиноиды: особенности формирования синдрома зависимости и подходы к терапии: Методические рекомендации / М.А. Винникова, С.М. Шахова. – М., 2016.

Comments(0)

When adding a comment stipulate:
  • the relevance of the published material;
  • general estimation (originality and relevance of the topic, completeness, depth, comprehensiveness of topic disclosure, consistency, coherence, evidence, structural ordering, nature and the accuracy of the examples, illustrative material, the credibility of the conclusions;
  • disadvantages, shortcomings;
  • questions and wishes to author.